Oil spill is the accidental discharge of petroleum or petroleum products and may occur on land from oil wells, oil transport trucks or pipelines; on rivers or lakes from barges or other vessels; or at sea from offshore platforms, oil tankers or oil-fuelled vessels. On land the effects of oil are less conspicuous. They receive less publicity and are not studied as intensively. One known effect results when gasoline from underground storage tanks leaks into the water table and thence into local water supplies.
What is Crude oil?
Crude oil is an oily liquid found in underground reservoirs that is extracted and used to make fuel and other petroleum products. It primarily contains a mixture of: volatile hydrocarbon compounds and other polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) such as benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, xylene and other volatile organic substances (VOCs), and other poisonous metals like cadmium, mercury, arsenic and lead.
Acute toxic effects are associated with exposure to VOCs and oil dispersants, which can enter the body through the lungs, skin, or other membranes. The fumes are absorbed by the skin or external membranes or inhaled through the mouth and nose and have been associated with disorders of the skin and mucus membranes. Additionally, ingestion of benzene and toluene is associated with neurological symptoms, nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea.
Effects on human health from exposure to oil spill:
World Health Organisation defines ‘health’ as a complete state of physical, mental and social well-being, and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity. Thus it is essential to acknowledge the multifaceted nature of health, which is dependent on physical, psychological, social and economic factors keeping in view the hazards (physical or chemical exposures that can cause harm) and risks (chance of a harm occurring) associated as a result of oil spillage.
Depending on the extent of exposure to crude oil,a wide range of consequencesbear potential and serious threats on human health extending from: short term (e.g., respiratory) and long-term (e.g., neurological); physical and psychological effects of exposure; physical stressors (e.g., heat stress and fatigue) and chemical stressors (e.g., oil and dispersants); and potential health effects in both the general population and among children and pregnant women.
Health effects:
Individuals exposed to higher concentrations of harmful chemicals may be more likely to suffer adverse health effects.ForCommunities living in the vicinity of the oil spills, even after controlling for pre-existing allergies and medical conditions, consistent evidence of acute toxic effects (mainly neurological, ocular (visual), respiratory and dermal) are present among exposed residents. Moreover different populations (e.g., fishermen & women, clean-up workers & residents of the affected communities) are exposed to different hazards related to the oil spill and may include:
• Defatting and drying of the skin and possibly dermatitis, as a result of prolonged contact with the skin;
• Chemical pneumonitis, if aspirated into the lungs;
• Respiratory irritation as a result of repeated and prolonged inhalation exposure to vapour; and
• Eye irritation as a result of repeated and prolonged exposure.
• Infection rates, cardiac arrhythmias, and liver function may also be compromised as a result of oil spill exposures.
• Effects of musculoskeletal issues, premature aging and cancer risk.
Physical/Occupational hazards:
Certain other physical & psychological hazards may pose greater risk of harm than from the more distinct chemical exposures. Some of the ill effects are:-
• Heat stress due to high temperatures and humidity;
• Ergonomic hazards that can cause injury to the musculoskeletal system;
• High noise levels;
• Sun exposure and dehydration; and
• Injuries due to slips, trips, and falls on slippery walking and working surfaces.
Human reproduction and child development:
• Children and fetuses are more vulnerable to adverse effects from chemical exposures.
• Health effects on pregnant women may include still birth, birth defects, low birth weight, preterm weight, and neonatal deaths (because developing organs are more sensitive and less efficient at detoxifying and metabolizing chemicals).
• Chemical exposures before conception, during gestation, and after birth can affect a child’s health. Direct chemical exposures can occur to a fetus or a child across the placenta or by ingestion, inhalation, or dermal absorption.
Social and psychological:Assessing social and psychological hazards is complex. A number of psychological and social health effects includes:-
• Domestic violence, drug and alcohol abuse, depression, post-traumatic stress disorder and anxiety disorder.
Ecosystem hazards:
Chemicals in the oil spill and the dispersants which are used to clean it up pose short and long term threats to human health, especially if they are inhaled or comes into contact with the skin. Also, certain harmful chemicals could accumulate in fish and shellfish, posing a seafood-contamination hazard for years. Toxic compounds released from the spill could become airborne and spread to the adjoining areas thus risking not just the life of plants and animals, but the population living around the vicinity of the oil spill.
Findings of some previous oil spills:
Some of the scientific studies of the health effects to workers, volunteers, and residents associated with previous oil spills are summarised below:
Exxon Valdez (1989)
• According to National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), there were 1,811 compensation claims filed by people involved with the spill, 15 percent were for respiratory problems. Claims were related to cuts, sprains, contusions, respiratory problems, and dermatitis.
• Beach crews breathed in crude oil that splashed off the rocks and into the air – the toxic exposure turned into chronic breathing conditions and central nervous system problems, along with other massive health issues. Some of the illness includes neurological impairment, chronic respiratory disease, leukemia, lymphoma, brain tumors, liver damage, and blood disease.
• 599 local residents were surveyed one year after the spill. They found that exposed individuals were 3.6 times more likely to have anxiety disorder, 2.9 times more likely to have post-traumatic stress disorder, and 2.1 times more likely to be depressed.
• Another survey of workers 14 years after they cleaned up Valdez showed a higher rate of chronic airway disease among workers with higher oil exposures.
The Braer oil spill (1993)
• People living in a 5Km radius, 1-2 weeks after the oil spill had a high prevalence of headache, throat irritation, dermatitis, and itchy eyes. One week after the accident, 97% of symptoms were resolved. No differences were found in the lung function, blood, or urine tests.
• Another study quantified DNA adducts and other genetic abnormalities in local residents after the accident. There was found to be no difference in the control and exposed group.
The Sea Empress oil spill (1996)
• There was an association between exposure to t he spill and headaches, sore eyes, and sore throats.
• Environmental levels of hydrocarbons, suspended particles, and sulphur were below accepted occupational limits. Twenty days after the spill, 282 residents were interviewed about their work with the spill, exposure to fuel oil, and health; urine samples were also taken. Symptoms that were reported included back and leg pain, headache, itchy eyes, and irritated throat. There was a positive correlation between the number and duration of symptoms and number of days worked on the accident.
The Erika oil spill (1999)
• Information was collected from 1465 people who participated in the cleanup activities. The most common symptoms that were reported were back pain, headache and dermatitis.
The Prestige oil spill (2002)
• A study of paid and volunteer workers in a highly polluted area five days after the accident reported headache, back pain, dizziness, dermatitis, respiratory problems, irritated and throat. This study also investigated genetic toxicity in volunteers, aid beach cleaners, and paid hose operators. There was an increase in DNA damage in all the three groups; however, more was observed in the volunteers working on the beaches. The type of DNA damage that was observed to be repaired by the body.
• Toxic effects were observed more frequently among workers working more than 20 days in highly polluted areas, performing 3 or more tasks, having skin contact with oil, or eating while in contact with oil.
• Throat and respiratory problems were most frequent in seamen and workers who had worked more than 20 days in highly polluted areas.
The Gulf of Mexico oil spill (2010)
• In Louisiana, in the early months of the spill, more than 300 people, most of whom were clean-up workers, sought medical care for symptoms like headaches, dizziness, nausea, vomiting, cough, respiratory stress and chest pain.
• In communities living in the vicinity of the oil spills, even after controlling for preexisting allergies and medical conditions, there was consistent evidence of acute toxic effects (mainly neurological, ocular, and respiratory but not dermal) among exposed residents.
• In the context of genetic and endocrine toxicity, some genotoxic damage in workers involved with oil spill cleanup activities was found.
• In the studies that found an association between reduced lung function and proximity to oil spill sites, the reduction was transient and improved in workers who were removed from the polluted environments.
Conclusion:
These studies show that workers and local residents can suffer from health effects after oil spills. The main symptoms by type of physical health are respiratory (cough, asthma, respiratory infections), gastrointestinal (food poisoning, nausea, vomiting and diarrhea), cerebrovascular (headache, dizziness and confusion), infection rates (viral and bacterial), skin rashes, irritation of the eyes and throat, and breathing problems. Genetic abnormalities (which are potentially repairable) were also found in some studies but not others. One study even reported mental health effects in local residents.
Although, the dangers and hazards involved with oil spills looms large for the general population, it is important to note that disadvantaged communities are at more risks than others, as there are more environmental hazards in disadvantaged communities; more individuals with poor health; and individuals with poor health tend to be more susceptible to environmental pollutants. In addition, one needs to consider not just long term-effects of short-term exposure but also the long–term health effects of long-term exposure.
What is Crude oil?
Crude oil is an oily liquid found in underground reservoirs that is extracted and used to make fuel and other petroleum products. It primarily contains a mixture of: volatile hydrocarbon compounds and other polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) such as benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, xylene and other volatile organic substances (VOCs), and other poisonous metals like cadmium, mercury, arsenic and lead.
Acute toxic effects are associated with exposure to VOCs and oil dispersants, which can enter the body through the lungs, skin, or other membranes. The fumes are absorbed by the skin or external membranes or inhaled through the mouth and nose and have been associated with disorders of the skin and mucus membranes. Additionally, ingestion of benzene and toluene is associated with neurological symptoms, nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea.
Effects on human health from exposure to oil spill:
World Health Organisation defines ‘health’ as a complete state of physical, mental and social well-being, and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity. Thus it is essential to acknowledge the multifaceted nature of health, which is dependent on physical, psychological, social and economic factors keeping in view the hazards (physical or chemical exposures that can cause harm) and risks (chance of a harm occurring) associated as a result of oil spillage.
Depending on the extent of exposure to crude oil,a wide range of consequencesbear potential and serious threats on human health extending from: short term (e.g., respiratory) and long-term (e.g., neurological); physical and psychological effects of exposure; physical stressors (e.g., heat stress and fatigue) and chemical stressors (e.g., oil and dispersants); and potential health effects in both the general population and among children and pregnant women.
Health effects:
Individuals exposed to higher concentrations of harmful chemicals may be more likely to suffer adverse health effects.ForCommunities living in the vicinity of the oil spills, even after controlling for pre-existing allergies and medical conditions, consistent evidence of acute toxic effects (mainly neurological, ocular (visual), respiratory and dermal) are present among exposed residents. Moreover different populations (e.g., fishermen & women, clean-up workers & residents of the affected communities) are exposed to different hazards related to the oil spill and may include:
• Defatting and drying of the skin and possibly dermatitis, as a result of prolonged contact with the skin;
• Chemical pneumonitis, if aspirated into the lungs;
• Respiratory irritation as a result of repeated and prolonged inhalation exposure to vapour; and
• Eye irritation as a result of repeated and prolonged exposure.
• Infection rates, cardiac arrhythmias, and liver function may also be compromised as a result of oil spill exposures.
• Effects of musculoskeletal issues, premature aging and cancer risk.
Physical/Occupational hazards:
Certain other physical & psychological hazards may pose greater risk of harm than from the more distinct chemical exposures. Some of the ill effects are:-
• Heat stress due to high temperatures and humidity;
• Ergonomic hazards that can cause injury to the musculoskeletal system;
• High noise levels;
• Sun exposure and dehydration; and
• Injuries due to slips, trips, and falls on slippery walking and working surfaces.
Human reproduction and child development:
• Children and fetuses are more vulnerable to adverse effects from chemical exposures.
• Health effects on pregnant women may include still birth, birth defects, low birth weight, preterm weight, and neonatal deaths (because developing organs are more sensitive and less efficient at detoxifying and metabolizing chemicals).
• Chemical exposures before conception, during gestation, and after birth can affect a child’s health. Direct chemical exposures can occur to a fetus or a child across the placenta or by ingestion, inhalation, or dermal absorption.
Social and psychological:Assessing social and psychological hazards is complex. A number of psychological and social health effects includes:-
• Domestic violence, drug and alcohol abuse, depression, post-traumatic stress disorder and anxiety disorder.
Ecosystem hazards:
Chemicals in the oil spill and the dispersants which are used to clean it up pose short and long term threats to human health, especially if they are inhaled or comes into contact with the skin. Also, certain harmful chemicals could accumulate in fish and shellfish, posing a seafood-contamination hazard for years. Toxic compounds released from the spill could become airborne and spread to the adjoining areas thus risking not just the life of plants and animals, but the population living around the vicinity of the oil spill.
Findings of some previous oil spills:
Some of the scientific studies of the health effects to workers, volunteers, and residents associated with previous oil spills are summarised below:
Exxon Valdez (1989)
• According to National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), there were 1,811 compensation claims filed by people involved with the spill, 15 percent were for respiratory problems. Claims were related to cuts, sprains, contusions, respiratory problems, and dermatitis.
• Beach crews breathed in crude oil that splashed off the rocks and into the air – the toxic exposure turned into chronic breathing conditions and central nervous system problems, along with other massive health issues. Some of the illness includes neurological impairment, chronic respiratory disease, leukemia, lymphoma, brain tumors, liver damage, and blood disease.
• 599 local residents were surveyed one year after the spill. They found that exposed individuals were 3.6 times more likely to have anxiety disorder, 2.9 times more likely to have post-traumatic stress disorder, and 2.1 times more likely to be depressed.
• Another survey of workers 14 years after they cleaned up Valdez showed a higher rate of chronic airway disease among workers with higher oil exposures.
The Braer oil spill (1993)
• People living in a 5Km radius, 1-2 weeks after the oil spill had a high prevalence of headache, throat irritation, dermatitis, and itchy eyes. One week after the accident, 97% of symptoms were resolved. No differences were found in the lung function, blood, or urine tests.
• Another study quantified DNA adducts and other genetic abnormalities in local residents after the accident. There was found to be no difference in the control and exposed group.
The Sea Empress oil spill (1996)
• There was an association between exposure to t he spill and headaches, sore eyes, and sore throats.
• Environmental levels of hydrocarbons, suspended particles, and sulphur were below accepted occupational limits. Twenty days after the spill, 282 residents were interviewed about their work with the spill, exposure to fuel oil, and health; urine samples were also taken. Symptoms that were reported included back and leg pain, headache, itchy eyes, and irritated throat. There was a positive correlation between the number and duration of symptoms and number of days worked on the accident.
The Erika oil spill (1999)
• Information was collected from 1465 people who participated in the cleanup activities. The most common symptoms that were reported were back pain, headache and dermatitis.
The Prestige oil spill (2002)
• A study of paid and volunteer workers in a highly polluted area five days after the accident reported headache, back pain, dizziness, dermatitis, respiratory problems, irritated and throat. This study also investigated genetic toxicity in volunteers, aid beach cleaners, and paid hose operators. There was an increase in DNA damage in all the three groups; however, more was observed in the volunteers working on the beaches. The type of DNA damage that was observed to be repaired by the body.
• Toxic effects were observed more frequently among workers working more than 20 days in highly polluted areas, performing 3 or more tasks, having skin contact with oil, or eating while in contact with oil.
• Throat and respiratory problems were most frequent in seamen and workers who had worked more than 20 days in highly polluted areas.
The Gulf of Mexico oil spill (2010)
• In Louisiana, in the early months of the spill, more than 300 people, most of whom were clean-up workers, sought medical care for symptoms like headaches, dizziness, nausea, vomiting, cough, respiratory stress and chest pain.
• In communities living in the vicinity of the oil spills, even after controlling for preexisting allergies and medical conditions, there was consistent evidence of acute toxic effects (mainly neurological, ocular, and respiratory but not dermal) among exposed residents.
• In the context of genetic and endocrine toxicity, some genotoxic damage in workers involved with oil spill cleanup activities was found.
• In the studies that found an association between reduced lung function and proximity to oil spill sites, the reduction was transient and improved in workers who were removed from the polluted environments.
Conclusion:
These studies show that workers and local residents can suffer from health effects after oil spills. The main symptoms by type of physical health are respiratory (cough, asthma, respiratory infections), gastrointestinal (food poisoning, nausea, vomiting and diarrhea), cerebrovascular (headache, dizziness and confusion), infection rates (viral and bacterial), skin rashes, irritation of the eyes and throat, and breathing problems. Genetic abnormalities (which are potentially repairable) were also found in some studies but not others. One study even reported mental health effects in local residents.
Although, the dangers and hazards involved with oil spills looms large for the general population, it is important to note that disadvantaged communities are at more risks than others, as there are more environmental hazards in disadvantaged communities; more individuals with poor health; and individuals with poor health tend to be more susceptible to environmental pollutants. In addition, one needs to consider not just long term-effects of short-term exposure but also the long–term health effects of long-term exposure.
(The writer is , Research Associate, ICE Foundation Kohima)
